SB 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 161. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. 



2CT3- 

A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN 
FROM CHINA. 



G. N. COLLIXS, Assistant Botanist.- 



Ism pm December 9, 1909. 




WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT printing office. 

1909. 



*onogra?fc 




Class SBltj\ 

Book -M-i-cn * 



Bui. 161, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate 




Chinese Maize: Front and Back View of the Same Plant. 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 161. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. 



A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN 
FROM CHINA. 



G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Botanist. 



Issued December 9, 1909. 




WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT printing office. 

1909, 









*/" 




^ 



BUREAU OP PLANT INDUSTRY. 



Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. 
Assistant Chief of Bureau, Albert F. Woods. 
Editor, J. E. Rockwell. 
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 



Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants. 

scientific staff. 

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. 
G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists. 
H. Pittier, J. H. Kinsler, and A. McLachlan, Special Agents. 
R. M. Meade, Scientific Assistant. 
161 

2 



DEC 8 1909 

fc»F0. 



I 



o 

^ 

> 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington, I). C, August 12, 1909. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled "A 
New Type of Indian Corn from China, " by Mr. G. N. Collins, Assistant 
Botanist of this Bureau, and recommend its publication as Bulletin 
No. 161 of the Bureau series. 
Respectfully, 

B. T. Galloway, 

Chief of Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
161 3 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 7 

Description of variety 8 

Distinctive characters 10 

Erect leaf blades 10 

Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades 11 

Development of silks by ears while still inclosed in the leaf sheaths 11 

Waxy endosperm 12 

Resistance to dry winds 12 

Climate of the region where the type was discovered 13 

Description of grain 13 

Color 13 

Size and shape of kernels 14 

New type of endosperm (waxy endosperm) 14 

Composition of seed 15 

Xenia 16 

Aleurone color 16 

Endosperm color 17 

Endosperm texture 17 

Size of seed 18 

Historical accounts of maize in China 20 

Conclusions 24 

Description of plates 28 

Index 29 

161 5 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Chinese maize: Front and back view of the same plant Frontispiece. 

II. Fig. 1. — Part of plant of Chinese maize, showing silks protected by 
the base of the leaf blade. Fig. 2. — Upper part of plant of Chinese 
maize, showing monostichous arrangement of the leaf blades 28 

161 
6 



B. P. I.— 506. 



A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM 

CHINA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In March, 1908, a small sample of shelled corn was received by 
the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction from Rev. J. M. W. 
Farnham, of the American Presbyterian Mission at Shanghai, China, 
with the following note : 

A peculiar kind of corn. There are several colors, but they are said to be all the 
same variety. The corn is much more glutinous than other varieties, so far as I know, 
and may be found to be of some use, perhaps as porridge. 

Plants were grown from this seed in the season of 1908 and proved 
to be quite unlike any of our cultivated varieties or those known 
from Tropical America. They possessed a number of unique charac- 
ters, no indication of which is found in any of the forms of Zea mays 
thus far recorded. Since this new type of maize thus extends the 
range of diversity of the species and enhances the possibilities of 
breeding by providing additional characters and adaptations, it 
appears desirable to place on record a description of the variety, with 
an enumeration of its peculiarities. Several of the unique features 
combine to enable the plant to resist the drying out of the silks by 
dry, hot winds at the time of flowering. 

Although the plants and the ears they produce are so small that 
the variety would probably find no place in direct competition with 
our improved varieties, the possession of this adaptation gives the 
new type an economic interest, particularly in some parts of the 
semiarid Southwest. In these regions a hot desert wind at the time 
of flowering will dry the silks before the grains have been pollinated, 
and often causes a complete failure of the crop, even under condi- 
tions not otherwise unfavorable. This danger would be greatly 
reduced if our varieties had some of the habits of this Chinese corn, 
and the effort is now being made to combine, by hybridizing, the 
desirable characters of this small variety with those of larger and 
more productive types. 

Another noteworthy feature of this corn is the character of the 
endosperm, which is quite distinct from the horny, starchy, or sweet 
endosperms of the varieties hitherto known, in the United States. In 
view of the recent development of specialized corn products as 
human food, this unique type of starch may be of some economic 
importance. 

8427— Bui. 161—09 2 7 



8 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETY. 

The seed of this corn as originally received from China was a mix- 
ture of yellow, white, and red grains, many of the latter being more 
or less mottled. Separate plantings were made of the yellow, white, 
and red colors and of the mottled grains. No differences in the 
behavior of the different plantings were detected, and the following 
description applies to the whole series. 

The seed was planted near Washington, D. C, on May 9, 1908, and 
53 plants were grown to maturity. The first pollen was shed eighty- 
two days after planting and the seed was harvested one hundred 
and thirty-nine days from planting, at which date most of the seed 
had been mature for some time. As a rule the silks appeared on the 
individual plants at about the time that the last of the pollen was 
being shed. One stalk was noted with silks at two ears, while the 
plant was still producing pollen. Suckers were produced by 40 per 
cent of the plants. 

The plants were of small stature, ranging from 3| to 6 feet in 
height; the average circumference of the stalk at the smallest point 
of the largest internode was slightly less than 3 inches. The number 
of nodes above the ground ranged from 11 to 15, with 4 nodes above 
the ear. The average number of green leaves at the time of tassel- 
ing was 12. The blade of the fifth leaf from the top averaged 31 J 
inches long by 3J inches wide. The longest leaf sheath averaged 1\ 
inches. The plants produced from 1 to 3 ears, a single ear at a node 
in every case. The ears were small and slightly tapering, averaging 
5§ inches long by 4 J inches in greatest circumference, with 16 to 18 
rows of small grains. Nothing unusual in the size or distribution of 
the roots could be observed. 

Except for their short, stocky habit of growth the plants showed 
no unusual behavior until after the leaves of the last four or five nodes 
began to appear. These leaves were formed in rapid succession, 
with very short internodes, and it was then noticed that on a large 
proportion of the plants the blades of the leaves were all on one side 
of the main stem. Thus the upper part of the plant, instead of hav- 
ing the usual distichous or two-rowed arrangement of the leaf blades, 
might be described as having a one-rowed or monostichous arrange- 
ment. While in only about 25 per cent of the plants were the upper 
leaf blades completely monostichous, all of them showed a tendency 
in this direction. This one-ranked appearance is brought about by 
a twisting of the leaf sheaths, the actual insertion of the leaves being 
opposite, as in all grasses. 

In addition to the unusual position of the leaves the blades of the 
upper nodes were erect instead of spreading or drooping, as in other 
varieties. The midrib of the blades did not form an angle with the 
sheathing base of the leaf, but continued upward in a straight line. 

161 



DESCRIPTION OF VARIETY. 



9 



The internodes on the upper part of the plant were also rnucn 
shortened, so that the tassel was not carried up, as in other varie- 
ties, but was considerably exceeded by the tips of the leaves. 

The tassel was moderately compact,, with from 14 to 30 primary 
branches, many of which were again branched. The spikelets were 
arranged in alternate groups of two, after the manner of most of our 
cultivated varieties. Nothing unusual was observed in the flowers. 
Pollen was produced in great abundance, and over a period of about 
five days in individual plants. 

The following is a tabulation of the measurements of eighteen plants, 
the seed of which was hand-pollinated either in the production of 
hybrids or for the study of characters in pedigreed stock: 

Table I. — Measurements and details of growth of eighteen plants of Chinese corn. 



Designation of plant by 
number. 


Days from 
planting to 
first pollen. 


Days to 
first silks. 


Green 
leaves. 


Length 

of fifth 

leaf from 

top. 


Width of 
fifth leaf 
from top. 


Length 
of longest 

leaf 
sheath. 


Primary 
branches 
in tassel. 


1 


No. 


No. 


No. 
9 
12 
13 
10 
11 
13 
13 
11 
14 
10 
13 
12 
9 
13 
13 
13 
12 
12 


Cm. 
63 
74 
67 
85 
81 
84 
88 
85 
88 
70 
83 
75 
96 
88 
83 
78 
86 
75 


Cm. 
7 
7 

8.5 
9 
8 
9 

8.5 
9 
9 
6 
9 
8 
7 
10 
9.5 
9 
9 
8 


Cm. 
15 


No. 
14 
16 


2 




99 


3 


97 


17 
22 
17 
19 
22 
20 
20 
20 
18 
17 
21 
21 
19 
19 
21 
17 


4 




20 
16 
24 
30 


5 


81 

82 
86 


85 
86 
93 


6 


7 


8 


9 




94 


18 


10 


105 
96 


11, 


100 


26 


12 


13 






19 
20 
28 
18 


14 


92 
102 
86 
94 


106 


15 


16 


89 
98 


17 


18 


17 










92.1 


94.4 


11.8 


80.5 


8.4 


19.1 


20.5 




Designation of plant by 
number. 


Height. 


Circum- 
ference. 


Inter- 
nodes. 


Ears. 


Inter- 
nodes 
above 
ear. 


Length 
of ear 

stalk. 


Suck- 
ers. 


Layers 

of 
husks. 


1 


Cm. 
117 
142 
142 
184 
120 
130 
170 


Cm. 
5.5 
8 
7 
7 

6.5 
9.5 
9 


No. 
11 


No. 

1 

2 


No. 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
4 
5 
4 
6 


Cm. 


No. 
1 

1 


1 
2 
1 
2 


No. 


2 


11 

7 
8 
10 
18 
17 




3 


13 
15 
11 
13 
13 
12 
15 
14 
14 
13 
14 
15 
14 
13 
13 
13 


5 


4 


1 
1 
3 
2 


5 


7 


6 


7 




8 




9 


176 


10 
6 
8 
8 
6 
9 
8 
8 

8.5 
8 


2 
1 

2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 


10 
6 

8 


6 


10 


11 


167 
145 
180 
180 
189 
162 
160 
145 





7 


12 


13 


7 
8 
16 
10 
8 






14 




15 




1 


6 


16 


4 
4 
5 




17 


7 


18 


2 


















156.8 


7.8 


13.3 


1.7 1 4.4 


10 3 


0.8 


6 1 



























161 



10 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 

The following are the characters which distinguish this Chinese 
corn from our United States varieties as well as from any of the 
forms thus far observed in Tropical America. It should not be over- 
looked that the plants on which these observations were made were 
grown in an entirely new environment and that some of the char- 
acters exhibited may not be normal to the variety. Should this 
prove to be the case, however, these unique characters still show the 
possibilities of the species and are scarcely less interesting in the 
new connection. 

Erect leaf Modes. — The leaf blades of the upper nodes are in most 
cases erect, the midrib of the blade and the back of the leaf sheath 
forming a straight line. The leaves on the lower part of the plant 
are borne at the customary angle, but each succeeding leaf is slightly 
more erect than the preceding until they become completely erect 
on the last two or three nodes. Our common varieties exactly 
reverse this behavior, the blades that are somewhat erect being on 
the lower part of the plant, each succeeding blade being more nearly 
horizontal. 

Our cultivated varieties vary greatly with respect to the angle of 
the blades, but nothing has been observed that approaches the defi- 
nitely erect position of the blades in the Chinese variety. What at 
first appeared to be an approximation was seen in a type of corn from 
Colombia. A considerable series of varieties from different parts of 
that country, while not in the least resembling the Chinese corn in 
other particulars, had very erect leaf blades. The resemblance is, 
however, more apparent than real. The blades that are erect in the 
Colombian varieties are not those that immediately precede the 
tassel, but are several nodes lower down. Few of the Colombian 
. varieties mature in the United States, and the uppermost leaves that 
are produced, though perhaps 20 feet from the ground, are still sev- 
eral nodes from the tassel. If the Colombian plants should reach 
maturity the blades that correspond to the erect blades of the Chinese 
variety would probably be borne much more nearly horizontal. 

A much closer approximation to the erect blades of the Chinese 
variety was found in a single plant of a variety of dent corn secured 
from Brownsville, Tex. In this specimen the uppermost blade made 
an angle with the sheath of only 5°, although other plants of the same 
variety had the leaf blades borne at the customary angle. The plant 
with the upright leaves was also abnormal in other respects. In 
observing the range of this character the other extreme was found 
in drought-resistant varieties from the table-land of Mexico, which 
have the uppermost leaf blades bent away from the stalk at an angle 
of over 90°, or below the horizontal. 

161 



DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 11 

Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades. — The most striking pecu- 
liarity of this Chinese variety is the one-sided appearance of most of 
the plants, caused by having the leaf blades on the upper part of the 
plant all on one side of the stalk. This character is shown in Plate 
I, figures 1 and 2, which represent opposite sides of the same plant, 
and in Plate II, figure 2, a more detailed view of the upper part of a 
plant, showing the bases of the blades in their natural size and posi- 
tion. 

This monostichous habit is definitely correlated with the erect posi- 
tion of the blades and follows almost as a necessary consequence. 
If the erect blades were arranged in the ordinary manner they would 
almost entirely inclose the silks and very greatly reduce the chances 
of pollination. The erect position of the blades, in connection with 
the monostichous habit, constitutes an almost ideal arrangement 
for insuring pollination. In the most extreme case the leaves of 
the fifth or sixth node from the base of the plant begin to show a 
deviation from the normal alternate arrangement, but in most cases 
only the last four or five leaves are distinctly on one side. 

With the exception of the single abnormal plant in the Browns- 
ville variety already mentioned, little tendency toward this monos- 
tichous habit was observed in any other variety, and the character 
seems never to have been recorded. 

As a consequence of the monostichous habit the top of the plant is 
curved or scorpoid. The crowding of the leaf blades on one side of 
the plant necessarily displaces the top, so that it curves toward the 
open side of the plant. In the most pronounced cases the tip of the 
plant is curved to such an extent that the last leaves pass the per- 
pendicular and bend forward over the tassel, with the back of the 
leaf uppermost. 

Development of silks by ears while still inclosed in the leaf sheaths. — 
A third character associated with the erect blades and monostichous 
habit is the production of the silks directly at the junction of the leaf 
blade and sheath. This character, while by no means so rare as the 
two preceding, does not appear, so far as the writer knows, in any of 
the varieties of field corn now cultivated in the United States. It is 
brought about by the development of the silks at an early stage, 
before the ear stalk has elongated and while the young ear is very 
small. The silks appear at the base of the leaf, where it joins the 
sheath before there is any other indication of an ear, except a slight 
swelling of the leaf sheath. 

A similar tendency to produce the silks before the young ear 
emerges from the leaf sheath is also shown by several entirely 
unrelated types from the American Tropics, but appears to be con- 
fined to varieties from regions that are subjected to severe drought. 

161 



12 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

Waxy endosperm. — The most distinctive character possessed by 
this Chinese variety is the nature of the endosperm, which is entirely 
unlike that of any of the known varieties of corn. A discussion of 
this character occurs on page 14, where the characters of the grain 
are described. 

RESISTANCE TO DRY WINDS. 

The combination of the three characters — erect leaf blades, monos- 
tichous arrangement of leaf blades, and silks borne directly in the 
angle where the blade joins the sheath — combine to constitute a 
most beautiful adaptation that prevents the drying out of the silks 
before pollination. The erect, overlapping blades catch all pollen 
that is blown against the upper part of the plant and allow it to settle 
in the channels at the base of the blades, where it accumulates in con- 
siderable quantities. The receptive silks are then pushed into this 
accumulation of pollen and can thus become fertilized before they 
are ever exposed to the air. 

With our ordinary varieties of Indian corn the ear is usually 
pushed out a considerable distance, often from 6 inches to a foot 
above the base of the leaf, before the silks appear. The moist, 
receptive stigmas are thus fully exposed to the air, and if pollen is 
at all scarce it may be several days before the majority of the silks 
are pollinated. The delicate silks are very susceptible to injury 
from drought, but where pollen is produced over a considerable period 
no permanent injury may be done, for the silks that are not polli- 
nated continue to grow and to produce new stigmatic surface for a 
week or more. 

In the semiarid district of the Southwest this continued growth 
of the silks is often of no avail. If the production of pollen is held 
in check for a few days by cool, moist conditions the dry, hot weather 
which often follows abruptly brings all the pollen to maturity within 
a very few days and at a time when the silks are too dry to be pol- 
linated. 

Even where the silks are not destroyed by drought, pollination is 
often imperfect. Though the pollen is produced in great abundance, 
it is so thoroughly scattered by the wind that the chances of each silk 
receiving its grain of pollen are by no means complete. In the 
Chinese corn, however, the pollen is literally collected and held in 
readiness so that each silk must come in contact with many grains. 

This combination of characters, while constituting an effective 
adaptation against drought at the time of flowering, might have its 
disadvantages if moist conditions prevailed. The accumulation of 

a Individual plants are estimated to produce from 10 to 70 millions of pollen grains. 
(See Lazenby, W. R., The Blossoming and Pollination of Indian Corn, Proceedings 
of the Meetings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, vol. 13-16, 
1896-1899, p. 127). 
161 



DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. 13 

pollen in the axils of the blades if kept moist would form an excellent 
medium for the development of molds, bacteria, and fungi. 

As the upright blades of the leaves always extend above the tassels 
it seems that the chances of self-pollination must be greater than 
usual, especially since in this Chinese variety the tassels do not appear 
much before the silks. The production of more than one ear on 
each stalk, which is usual in this variety, would to some extent 
correct the tendency to self-pollination, for in practically all cases 
the second ear must be cross-pollinated. In regions where high 
winds prevail at the time of flowering, the percentage of self-ferti- 
lized grains would be further reduced. 

This adaptation would be still more perfect if the plants were 
oriented so that the open side of the plant was presented to a pre- 
vailing wind. In our experimental planting the plants appeared 
to face indifferently in all directions, but the number of plants was 
small and if any tendency toward a definite orientation existed the 
wind would doubtless be the exciting cause, while in the absence of a 
definitely prevailing wind such orientation could hardly be expected.* 1 

CLIMATE OF THE REGION WHERE THE TYPE WAS DISCOVERED. 

The climate of the vicinity of Shanghai where Doctor Farnham 
found this corn is not shown by the available meteorological data to 
be of the exacting nature which might be expected to call forth a 
special adaptation against drought. The characters of the plant do 
not indicate a general resistance to drought, but rather an adapta- 
tion against dry winds at the time of flowering. These periods of 
drought might be of such short duration that no indication of them 
would be given by ordinary meteorological data on rainfall and 
humidity. Short periods of drought do occur in many regions and 
have little effect on the total monthly rainfall and average humidity, 
but are nevertheless an important factor in determining plant growth. 
It is also not improbable that the variety here described was origi- 
nally from the northern part of China, where extreme droughts 
during the summer months are the rule. If this is the case, the 
cultivation of this variety, even in China, must be somewhat 
restricted, for Mr. Frank N. Meyer says that nothing resembling this 
type was seen by him in the northern part of China, where he traveled 
for nearly three years, making a study of the agriculture of that 
region.* 

DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. 

Color. — The original seed was very much mixed with respect to 
color. A majority of the grains had a yellow endosperm and a dull 
ruby-colored aleurone layer. Few were pure white and a still 
smaller number a very light lemon-yellow. 

The color of the aleurone layer was distinct from anything that 
has been observed in other varieties. It varied greatly in intensity. 

a See note on page 25. 
161 



14 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

In rare cases it approached the bluish black of our common "black" 
varieties, but for the most part varied from a dull ruby to maroon. 
The color was usually confined to the top of the seed, fading out 
toward the base and sometimes slightly mottled. The pericarp was 
in all cases transparent. 

The location of a red color in the aleurone layer is in itself a rather 
unusual character. As a rule in red varieties the color is located in 
the pericarp or outside coat of the seed. The aleurone, or the layer 
of cells immediately inside the seed coat, if colored, is usually some 
shade of blue, which may vary from slate color through purple to 
black. There is one well-known exception, the Voorhees red sweet 
corn, which has a dark-red aleurone. It is interesting to note that 
this variety originated by crossing a white variety (colorless aleurone 
layer) and one which had a blue-black aleurone. 

Size and shape of kernels. — Most of the seeds are cuneate with 
rounded tops, straight sides, and pointed bases, though there were 
many broader seeds with blunt bases. The cross section is circular 
or indistinctly hexagonal, the transverse diameter being only slightly 
greater than the longitudinal. In the form and size of the kernels, 
as well as in the appearance of the ear, this corn is very similar to a 
type commonly grown in southern and southeastern Europe. 6 

In the original seed the size was very variable, due largely to the 
presence of poorly formed grains. The white seeds were somewhat 
more uniform and slightly larger than those with red aleurone. The 
red seeds averaged 7 mm. long and 5.8 mm. in greatest width (50 
seeds measured), while the same number of white seeds averaged 7.4 
mm. long and 6.1 mm. wide. The average weight of the red seeds 
was 0.098 and of the white 0.122 gram. 

New type of endosperm (waxy endosperm). — The texture of the 
endosperm is one of the unique features of this corn. There is -a 
very small amount of the amylaceous or starchy endosperm, about 
as it appears in the common varieties of pop corn. The remainder 
of the endosperm occupying the position of the corneous or horny 
endosperm of our ordinary varieties is quite distinct in its appear- 
ance and mechanical characteristics, and must be considered as con- 
stituting another type of endosperm in addition to the amylaceous 
or starchy and the corneous or horny endosperm possessed by flint, 
dent, and soft varieties. 

This new type of endosperm is undoubtedly more closely related 
to the corneous endosperm and occupies the same position in the 

°Halsted and Kelsey. Bulletin 170, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion. 1904. 

&Mr. J. D. Shanahan, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, states that these varieties 
with small grains command a special price in England, where they are in demand 
as a food for pheasants. 
161 



DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. 



15 



grain, but its physical properties are strikingly different. It is less 
glassy than the corneous endosperm, though nearly as hard. Cut in 
any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, 
smooth surface. Instead of being translucent it is completely 
opaque, though not in the least approaching the coarse opaque tex- 
ture of the amylaceous endosperm. The texture suggests that of the 
hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From 
this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm 
is suggested. Like the corneous endosperm it is either white or yel- 
low, while the amylaceous endosperm, so far as observed, is always 
white. The opaque nature of this cereous endosperm is especially 
evident when grains with a colored aleurone layer are cut. When 
colored grains with a corneous endosperm are cut the translucent 
nature of the endosperm causes it to appear colored like the aleurone 
layer, while in the Chinese corn the endosperm appears in its true 
color, white or yellow, unaffected by the color of the aleurone. 

Composition of seed. — The appearance and physical composition of 
the seeds of this Chinese corn were so distinct from that of other 
varieties that the possibility of a difference in chemical composition 
naturally suggested itself, but analyses did not yield any very unusual 
results. Analyses of two ears, apparently similar, showed very 
different percentages of oil and protein, but all within the limits 
reported from analyses of American varieties. 

With a view to ascertaining something of the range of composi- 
tion in different types of corn a series of twenty-one varieties was 
analyzed and appears in the table below, arranged in order of the 
percentage of protein. The analyses were made by the Bureau of 
Chemistry of this Department from samples thoroughly air dried. 
The oil and protein are calculated on a water-free basis. 

Table II. — Chemical analyses of ticenty-one varieties of Indian corn. 



No. of 

va- 
riety. 



Class of corn. 



Source. 



Protein. 


Oil. 


Water. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


13.31 


5.46 


9.05 


12. 49 


6.87 


9.48 


12.10 


7.58 


10.08 


11.84 


5.66 


8.95. 


11.80 


5.06 


9.81 


11.80 


6.12 


10.11 


11.63 


4.23 


9.63 


11.00 


6.82 


10.53 


10.61 


5.37 


9.34 


10.01 


5.80 


9.27 


9.90 


5.51 


9.87 


9.75 


4.48 


9.83 


9.65 


4. GO 


9.80 


9.50 


6.20 


9.67 


9.28 


4.49 


9.09 


9.19 


5.98 


8.25 


8.74 


6.39 


10.52 


8.46 


5.64 


9.31 


8.35 


6.36 


10.06 


8.26 


4.12 


9.01 


8.05 


4.98 


8.67 



Weight 
of 1,000 
seeds. 



Pop 

Soft 

....do 

Flint 

do 

Wax (new Chinese type) 

Dent 

Soft 

Dent 

Soft 



Flint, 

Dent 

do 

Soft 

Chinese hybrid, corne- 
ous endosperm. 

Pop 

Dent (shoe-peg) 

Soft 

Pop 

Wax (new Chinese type) 
Dent 



Hungary 

Hopi Indians, Arizona 

do 

Argentine 

Rhode Island 

China 

Colombia 

Hopi Indians, Arizona 

Chiapas, Mexico 

Tuscarora Indians, New 
York. 

North Dakota 

Illinois 

do 

Hopi Indians, Arizona 

China 

Algeria 

Vera Cruz 

Chihuahua, Mexico 

Toluca, Mexico 

China 

Chihuahua, Mexico 



Grams. 
122 
254 



493 



560 
403 



132 

121 
349 
336 
81 



161 



16 NEW TYPE OP INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

Table II shows that the chemical composition of the seeds of corn 
stands in no direct relation to the type of grain. Similar varieties 
are widely separated with respect to amount of protein and oil, and 
such diverse types as the soft corns and the pop corns may show a 
closely similar chemical composition. Thus one variety of soft corn 
stands next to the top in percentage of protein and a similar variety 
is fourth from the last. One variety that must be classed as a pop 
corn heads the list, with 13.31 per cent of protein, while another 
variety of pop corn from Mexico is third from the last, with 8.35 per 
cent. It is further interesting to note that the variet}^ of soft corn 
grown by the Hopi Indians stands first in percentage of oil, second 
in percentage of protein, and third in amount of water. 

It has frequently been noted that the composition of different ears 
of a uniform strain shows diversities of the same order as that found 
in a series of varieties. Even the very distinct types included in 
the above series show only a slightly greater range than that usually 
found in a similar number of ears of a single uniform variety. 

Crossing the Chinese corn with other varieties seems to have the 
effect of increasing the percentages both of oil and of protein in the 
same season that the cross is made. Seed from an open-pollinated 
ear that had received foreign pollen, as shown by the corneous 
nature of the endosperm, showed an increase of 1.02 per cent in oil 
and 0.37 per cent in protein over the pure seed from the same ear. a 

XENIA. 

During the season of 1908 a number of hand-pollinations inside 
the variety were made, and ten hybrids were also secured between 
the Chinese corn and other varieties. These ears afford an oppor- 
tunity for preliminary observations regarding the behavior of hybrid 
characters that appear in the F generation; that is, in the same 
year that the cross is made. 

ALETJRONE COLOR. 

The red aleurone color appears in general to be prepotent when 
crossed with white varieties. A cross between two plants both 
from red seed produced an ear with 398 seeds, 312 showing the red 
color and 86 without, a ratio of 1:3.6 + . Assuming that both 
plants were heterozygotes (i. e., crosses of red and colorless indi- 
viduals) the expectation, according to Mendel's law, would be 1:3 or 
298.5 and 99.5 ±18.4. Another cross between a plant from a red 

° Scherffius reported no change in the protein content of hybrid seed compared with 
pure seed of the same ear; based on analyses of white seeds that appeared on open- 
pollinated ears of Reid yellow dent, Yellow Learning, and Riley's Favorite. See 
Bulletin 122, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 188. 
161 



XENIA. 17 

seed and a white variety of starch corn from Chihuahua, Mexico, 
produced an ear with 431 seeds, 381 with colored aleurone and 50 
without color; the expected ratio would be either all colored if the 
female were pure, or equal numbers of each if the female were het- 
erozygote. Deviations from the expected ratio with respect to 
aleurone colors are common, but they are usually accompanied by 
gradations in the intensity of the color, while in this case the two 
classes were very sharply marked. Another cross between plants 
both from seeds with colored aleurone produced an ear with all the 
seeds red. 

In a cross between a plant from a white seed of the Chinese (female) 
and a variety with black aleurone from Salvador the seeds all showed 
a mottling in the aleurone layer. None were pure black, though 
some were nearly pure white. 

A cross between a starch variety grown by the Hopi Indians of 
Arizona with blue-black aleurone (female) and a white Chinese 
variety showed no trace of the white parent. This case is of par- 
ticular interest, as the aleurone color in this Hopi variety is defi- 
nitely recessive to colorless aleurone in the same variety. 

Where plants from white seeds were pollinated among them- 
selves, the result was in nearly every case a pure white ear. In six 
hand-pollinated ears among plants from seeds without aleurone 
color, four produced seeds entirely without aleurone color. The 
other two ears, while mostly white, produced in the one case 4 and 
in the other 6 seeds that showed aleurone color. Among the crosses 
with other varieties, 7 were between Chinese plants from white 
seed and other varieties without aleurone color; in every case the 
ears produced were entirely without aleurone color. 

ENDOSPERM COLOR. 

No crosses were made between Chinese plants from seeds with yel- 
low and white endosperm, but from the appearance of the close-pol- 
linated ears and those that were wind-pollinated it appears that the 
yellow is dominant, though varying in intensity, as with other varie- 
ties. All crosses between plants from seeds with white endosperm 
gave practically all white seeds, the exception being one poorly filled 
ear with 29 seeds, 4 of which had yellow endosperms. Since the 
same ear also showed seeds with horny endosperm, it seems not 
improbable that the precautions against foreign pollen were imper- 
fect. Two crosses between plants from seed with yellow endosperms 
gave all yellow seeds. 

ENDOSPERM TEXTURE. 

The unique nature of the endosperm texture of this Chinese corn 
affords an interesting opportunity to study the behavior of definitely 

161 



18 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

contrasted characters. So far as observed every grain of the original 
seed of the Chinese corn possessed the characteristic waxy endo- 
sperm, while nothing of this nature has been observed in any Ameri- 
can variety. Since the waxy endosperm is completely recessive to 
the horny and starchy endosperm of our common varieties, its appear- 
ance in all the kernels of the original seed would indicate that the 
seed was grown in a region in China where there was no admixture with 
varieties having a horny endosperm. 

Eight crosses were made between plants from seeds with waxy 
endosperms, and in practically every case the seeds were all waxy. 
Six ears produced from crosses between varieties with horny and waxy 
endosperms produced only horny kernels; two between starchy and 
waxy varieties had starchy kernels only. 

SIZE OF SEED. 

It was apparent from open-pollinated ears of Chinese corn that the 
size of the seed was influenced by the nature of the pollen. Seeds 
which showed by their color and texture the effect of foreign pollen 
were in nearly every case distinctly larger than those showing pure 
Chinese characteristics. Twenty-one yellow, transparent seeds from 
the central portion of an open-pollinated ear of white Chinese had an 
average weight of 0.178 gram, while the white opaque seeds from the 
same portion of the ear averaged 0.153 gram to the seed. There 
was some variation in the size of the white seed, but 21 of the largest 
of these averaged only 0.161 gram. 

Further experiments are needed to determine whether this increase 
in size is due to the inheritance of the size of a large-seeded male par- 
ent or whether the increase is another instance of the increased size 
of a hybrid over the average of the parent. 

The following table summarizes the results of twenty hand-pollina- 
tions with respect to the characters that appeared in the same season 
that the crosses were made: 

161 



XENIA. 



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161 



20 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FEOM CHINA. 

HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA.a 

The discovery in China of a variety of maize with characters not 
known in American varieties of the species is not without interest 
from the historical point of view. Whether maize was known in 
the Eastern Hemisphere before the discovery of America was u 
warmly disputed question some decades ago, but since De CandohVs 
studies and his definitely negative conclusions were published, most 
writers have accepted his view. 6 

The finding of this unique variety of maize in China suggested a 
reexamination of the data on which De Candolle's conclusions were 
based. It now appears that important considerations have been over- 
looked and that the question is far from being settled. The issues 
have been confused by the failure to distinguish between two radically 
different points of view, the origin of the species in Asia and the pos- 
sibility of its introduction into that continent in pre-Columbian times. 
Regarding the first question there can be but one opinion. Maize is 
of American origin. To many writers the mass of evidence that 
showed the widespread use and importance of corn in America at the 
time of the discovery seemed to preclude the idea that it could have 
existed at the same time in Asia. The other cultivated plants that 
are now known to have been extended on both sides of the Pacific 
show that the presence of maize in China would in no way conflict 
with the generally accepted fact that the maize plant is a native of 
America. The possibility that maize might have been introduced 
into China before the discovery of America by Europeans is to be 
considered quite alone on the basis of historical evidence. 

The most significant evidence to the effect that maize was known 
in China before the discovery of America is not, as De Candolle 
states, the mention of maize in the mediaeval "Charter of Incisa," 
now held to be a forged document, but the descriptions of maize 
that occur in Chinese literature. Very little information exists in 
Europe or America regarding the scientific writings of the Chinese, 
but enough is at present available to show that De Candolle's con- 
clusions may need to be modified. 

The first serious attempt to canvass this class of information is 
found in an article by Hance and Mayers. c At the request of Mr. 

a The writer is indebted to Mr. Walter T. Swingle for assistance with the literature 
concerning maize in China. 

b See De Candolle, A. C, Geographie botanique raisonnee, 1855, vol. 2, p. 942, 
and Origin of Cultivated Plants (International Scientific Series), 1886, p. 387. 

c Hance, H. F., and Mayers, W. F. Introduction of Maize into China, Pharma- 
ceutical Journal, ser. 3, vol. 1, December 31, 1870, pp. 522-525. Dr. H. F. Hance, 
one of the foremost authorities on Chinese botany, went to China from England in 
1844 and remained in that country until his death in 1886. Mr. W. F. Mayers, a 
recognized authority on the Chinese language, lived in China from 1856 to 1878. See 
Bretschneider, E., History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, pp. 632-695. 
161 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA. 21 

Mayers a memorandum on the history of maize in China was pre- 
pared by Mei K'i-chao, the intendant of the grain revenue for the 
province of Kwangtung. This memorandum includes a list of the 
common names of maize and their derivations. All references to 
the introduction of the plant are vague, except for the repeated 
and definite statement that it came to China from the west, more 
particularly from " Si-fan," a name formerly applied to a region to 
the west of China, including parts of Tibet and possibly Turkestan. 
Mei K'i-chao adds that there is a tradition in the provinces of Yunnan 
and Kweichow that maize was introduced there by Ma Fu-po from 
Cochin China. Mayers adds in a footnote that Ma Fu-po was known 
to have headed an expedition against the Si-fan tribes to the west 
in A. D. 36, and that he may have brought maize from there rather 
than from the south. In conclusion Mei K'i-chao says: 

It is further noted that this grain was heretofore presented as tribute, but again no 
date is assigned. It is evident that its introduction must have taken place at a very 
early period; as, at the time when these works were compiled [1552 to 1632], no infor- 
mation could be procured. 

In the article just mentioned Mr. Mayers gives translations of 
references to maize in early Chinese works. The most important of 
these is taken from the Pen ts'ao kang mu, a Chinese herbal or materia 
medica. The author, Li Shi-chen, was born in the early part of the 
sixteenth century and began this work in 1552. It was completed 
in 1578, having been rewritten three times by the author, and after 
his death was laid before the Emperor by the author's son and pub- 
lished the same year, about 1596.° 

The figures of maize reproduced in Mr. Mayers's article are well 
known and have frequently been copied, but the translation seems 
to have passed unnoticed. De Candolle refers to the article, but ad- 
mits not having seen it. 

Mr. Mayers's translation of the paragraph of the Pen ts'ao kang 
mu that refers to corn is given below with very slight corrections. 6 

The seed of the Yu-shu-shu came from the lands on the West, and it is cultivated by 
but few. Its stalk and leaf both resemble the ShU-shu [sorghum c], but are more fleshy 
and shorter. They also resemble the \i-i\ Coix lachryma; the stalk grows to a height of 
3 or 4 feet; it flowers in the sixth or seventh month, producing an ear like that of the 
Pi-me. From the heart of the stalk there issues a sheath in shape like the Tsung fish, 
from which a white waving beard grows out. After a time the sheath opens and the 

a Bretschneider, E. Botanicon Sinicum. Journal of the North China Branch of 
the Royal Asiatic Society, n. s., vol. 16, p. 55. Shanghai, 1892. 

t> Book 23, p. 23 r°, edition of 1646, a copy of which is in the Library of Congress. 

c Wu Ki-siin. Chi wu ming shi t'u k'ao (original part), book 1, p. 44, gives under 
this name an excellent picture of a compact-headed sorghum similar to the durras of 
northern Africa and western Asia. 
161 



22 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

grain comes forth. The grains are clustered together, each one as large as a Tsung 
seed [a palm, probably Trachycarpus excelsa], and yellow and white in color; they 
may be eaten baked or roasted. When roasted, they burst into a white flour-like 
mass, similar in appearance to that produced when rice of the glutinous kind is roasted. 

The two figures given by Mayers from two different editions of 
the Pen ts'ao kang mu are crude and might be taken to represent 
any large-leaved, erect grass with a large terminal inflorescence. 
The text, on the contrary, leaves no room for doubt that the plant 
referred to is in reality maize. The height of 3 or 4 feet of course 
refers to Chinese feet of about 14 English inches. The "white wav- 
ing beard" accurately describes the silks and would not apply to any 
other grass ; this feature is shown in all the illustrations, even though 
the artist places the ear at the top of the plant. The opening of the 
sheath or husks can be understood, since the tip of the ear is com- 
monly exposed in small varieties of maize. 

Another contemporaneous reference to maize in China is given by 
Mendoza, an Augustine monk, who compiled the reports of the early 
Portuguese and Spanish missionaries in China, in a book published 
in 1585. a The first part, which contains the references to maize, 
was based on the accounts of Martin de Herrada and Geronimo Mar- 
in, who visited China in 1575. Herrada was a scholar familiar with 
the Chinese language, while Marin is described as "a native of Mex- 
ico, a man equally distinguished for his piety and learning." 6 To a 
native of Mexico the positive identification of maize would be certain, 
especially as the reference is made in the following specific manner: 

On their high grounds, that are not good to be sowne, there is great store of pine 
trees, which yeelde fruite very sauorie: chestnuts greater, and of better tast, then com- 
monly you shall finde in Spaine: and yet betwixt these trees they do sow maiz, which 
is the ordinarie foode of the Indians of Mexico and Peru. 

The possibility of maize being a recent introduction would seem to 
be precluded by a second reference where this grain is referred to as 
one of the commodities paid as tribute to the King of China at a time 
that was considered ancient in 1575. 

The rent which remaineth vunto the king ordinarily is this that followeth, and is 
taken with great regard out of the booke of his exchecker. Yet the Chinos do say that 
it is much lesse then that they do pay at this time; for that this is of old antiquitie, 
when as the tributes were lesse: . . . 

The reference to maize as a tribute is as follows: 

Of wheat called Mayz, twentie millions two hundred and fiftie thousand hanegs 
[about 30 million bushels]. 

a Mendoza, Juan Gonzales de. The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of 
China. (Parke translation, 1588.) Hakluyt Society reprint 1853, pp. 15 and 84. 
b Mendoza, loc. cit., p. lxix. 
161 



HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA. 23 

Another reference to the use of maize as tribute appears in the fol- 
lowing extract from Mr. Mayers' s article: 

Apart from the Pun Ts'ao, notices upon the present subject have also been sought 
in the "Ke Chih King-yuan," or "Mirror of Classified Research," a vast cyclopaedia of 
information in all departments of physical study practiced by the Chinese, with ref- 
erences under each heading to antecedent works. This collection, in twenty-four 
volumes, was published in 1735 by Chen Yuan-lung. It contains no reference to 
maize under the name of Yii Shil-shu; but describes the plant as Yii-mi (imperial 
wheat), in the following terms: 

" Yii-me, or imperial wheat, originated in the Si-fan territory (the lands beyond 
the western frontier of China proper), and its ancient name was Fan-me, or 'wheat of 
the foreign lands of the West.' Having been offered among tribute, it has received 
the name of imperial wheat. In its stem and leaf it is the congener of the Ts'i, or 
panicled millet, and, in its flower, of rice. The sheath inclosing the ear is like a closed 
fist, but longer. The beard resembles red threads. The seed is like the grain of the 
Tz plant, but large, lustrous, and white. The flower blooms at the top of the plant, 
and the seed (ear?) grows out from the joints." (Loc. cit., p. 525. ) a 

If maize existed in China in very early times it may be expected 
that conclusive proof of the fact will be found in the pre-Columbian 
Chinese literature. Bibliographies of Chinese literature cite a num- 
ber of cyclopedias and other large works, published before the dis- 
covery of America, that treat, at least in part, of agricultural sub- 
jects, but it does not appear that these have been scrutinized for 
references to maize. A study of this mediaeval Chinese literature 
would doubtless go far toward settling this interesting question. 

No very great significance can be attached to the absence of refer- 
ences to maize in the accounts of early European travelers in China. 
The only really detailed account of China before the discovery of 
America is that of Marco Polo, who traveled extensively in China 
during the thirteenth century. That even this account is far from 
complete, however, is shown by the omission of any reference to tea, 
a plant of much more importance than corn, and which is known to 
have been cultivated in China since 2000 B. C, 

° This paragraph is without doubt identical with one occurring in the Liu ch'ing 
ji cha of Tien I-heng, discovered by Berthold Laufer (The Introduction of Maize 
into Eastern Asia, in Congres International des Americanistes, Quebec, 1907, vol. 1, 
p. 232), who makes the case even stronger by using the word "formerly" in his trans- 
lation of the second sentence of the paragraph, which he gives as follows: "Since it 
was formerly brought as tribute to the court, it has received for this reason the name 
'imperial wheat' (yii mai)." The Liu ch'ing ji cha is not cited in any European 
bibliography of Chinese literature, but since the passage in question was embodied 
in a work of Wang Shih-mou, who died in 1591, Professor Laufer infers that Tien I-heng 
wrote "say, about the middle of the sixteenth century." It thus becomes of impor- 
tance to find the exact date of this publication, apparently the earliest known Chinese 
reference to maize. Professor Laufer's paper is full of valuable information on the 
history of maize in Asia, but unfortunately came into the writer's hands too late for 
full utilization in the present paper. 
161 



24 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

De Candolle's negative conclusion would seem to be fairly offset, 
at least, by the affirmative opinion stated by Doctor Hance as follows: 

In my judgment, the remote date assigned by Chinese records to its introduction 
and the circumstance that the introducer is unknown are irreconcilable with the sup- 
position that it was brought to this country by the Portuguese, their first arrival here, 
under Fernand Perez d'Andrada, being, I believe, in 1517, and the earliest notice 
of maize in European literature dating later than 1530. To those, finally, who urge 
the conflicting and erroneous opinions of the earlier European writers as to the country 
whence maize found its way to the West as a ground for regarding Chinese statements 
with equal distrust, I would answer that it is not logical to apply 'the same canons of 
criticism to Western and Chinese literature, the latter being, at the period in question, 
in a very different and comparatively far more advanced state of development. (Loc. 
cit., p. 523.) 

At the same time it must be admitted that the present facts can 
not be said to exclude the possibility that maize might have reached 
China after the discovery of America. Contacts between America and 
the Orient occurred very soon after the discovery of America, and in 
some cases at least were very direct. One expedition under Cabral left 
Portugal in March, 1500, and reached Brazil on May 1 of that year. 
It remained in Brazil twenty-two days, and then proceeded direct 
to India. a Opportunity was thus afforded for the carrying of maize 
from America directly to the East Indies instead of by way of Europe. 
It is very difficult, however, to believe that maize could have become 
established as a cultivated crop and spread into China in seventy- 
five years, even if a definite introduction had been undertaken 
promptly by the Portuguese. If varieties of corn similar to the 
Chinese are found in Brazil, the fact may have bearing on the histori- 
cal question. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The variety of Indian corn here described was introduced from 
Shanghai, China, and appears to be distinct from all hitherto known 
types. The plants possess the following unique characters: 

(1 ) Erect leaf blades. — The leaf blades on the upper part of the plant 
stand erect instead of being borne in a more or less horizontal posi- 
tion, as in the ordinary varieties. 

(2) Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades. — In addition to the 
erect position of the blades, those on the upper part of the plant are 
in many cases all on one side of the stem. 

(3) Silks developed while still inside the leaf sheath. — Instead of the 
ear pushing out before the silks appear, the silks are produced 
directly at the base of the leaf blades, before the young ears emerge. 

(4) New type of endosperm. — The texture of the endosperm is 
unique, and can not be referred to either the starchy or horny types 

a Fiske, John. Discovery of America, vol. 2, p. 96. 
161 



CONCLUSIONS. 25 

common in our cultivated varieties. It resembles the horny endo- 
sperm in location and hardness, but differs in texture and optical 
properties. 

The early development of silks and erect leaf blades combine to 
produce an adaptation which insures pollination and prevents the 
silks drying out. The pollen is blown against the erect leaf blades 
and accumulates in their bases. The silks are pushed into these 
accumulations of pollen and become pollinated before they are 
exposed to the air. 

Xenia characters in hybrids appear for the most part to follow 
Mendel's laws. Colored aleurone is dominant to transparent aleu- 
rone; yellow endosperm is dominant to white endosperm, and horny 
endosperm is dominant to waxy endosperm. 

The discovery in China of a distinct type of maize has bearing 
upon the historical question whether maize was known in the Orient 
before the discovery of America. Though maize undoubtedly origi- 
nated in America, the nature of the historical evidence regarding the 
extensive cultivation of maize in China in the latter part of the six- 
teenth century seems to preclude the idea of very recent introduction, 
leaving open the possibility that this specialized type of corn has 
developed in China. The generally accepted view to the contrary 
is further thrown in doubt by references to its widespread use and 
introduction from the west that occur in Chinese literature published 
during the sixteenth century. 

Note. — After the foregoing paper was in type a letter dated August 24, 1909, was 
received from Rev. J. M. W. Farnham, Mokansan, China. This letter confirms in a 
very gratifying way the ideas advanced regarding the adaptive significance of the 
peculiar characteristics of the variety of maize described in this bulletin. 

With respect to the climatic conditions that prevail in the region where this variety 
of corn is grown, Mr. Farnham states, "There is usually a long dry spell at the time of 
flowering," and as an example of the effect of this dry weather on ordinary varieties 
he writes, "I have a good illustration of pollination failing in a dry time in a case of a 
small patch of 'Late Mammoth' from which we are now eating. In gathering corn 
for the table to-day I found that probably half the ears, though large and well formed, 
had not a kernel of corn on them. Also many of the others had but a few kernels. 
There was protracted dry weather when this patch of corn was pollenizing." 

Mr. Farnham also confirms the suggestion regarding the orientation of the plants 
with reference to a prevailing wind. "About 30 per cent of the plants have their 
leaves this way [on one side of the plant] and where there is this arrangement they 
face south. As I have said, the wind blows from the south pretty steadily all summer." 

Mr. Farnham further states that there is a considerable area of this corn grown about 
Lieu-oo, twenty miles southwest of Shanghai, but it is not considered the principal 
crop. It is usually planted between the rows of cotton and is left to occupy the field 
after the cotton has been picked. A similar variety is grown at Taitsong, near Soo- 
chow, and on the island of Ch'ungming at the mouth of the Yangtze. The type is 
believed to be of local origin, and has been known personally to Mr. Farnham for 
thirty or forty years. 
161 



PLATES. 



161 27 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 

Plate I. (Frontispiece.) Chinese maize: Front and back view of the same plant. 
It will be noted that the leaf blades on the upper part of the plant are all on one 
side of the stalk and that they are erect and exceed the tassel. 

Plate II. Fig. 1. — Chinese maize, showing silks protected by the base of the leaf 
blade. The photograph here reproduced was taken some time after pollination 
and the enlargement of the ear has forced the sheath away from the stalk. 
Fig. 2. — Upper part of a Chinese maize plant, showing the monostichous arrange- 
ment of the leaf blades. The base of the tassel appears in the upper part of the 
picture. 

161 

28 



Bui. 16T, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricultu- 



Plate ll„ 




Fig. 1— Part of Plant of 
Chinese Maize, Showing 
Silks Protected by the 
Base of the Leaf Blade. 

(Natural size.) 



Fig. 2.— Upper Part of Plant of Chinese Maize, 
Showing Monostichous Arrangement of the 
Leaf Blades. 

(Natural size.) 



INDEX 



rage. 

Aleurone, Chinese corn, new type, color 14, 16, 24 

Analyses, grain of twenty-one varieties of corn 15 

Blades, leaf, erect form in new type of Chinese corn 8, 10, 12, 24 

monostichous arrangement in new type of < 'hinese corn 8, 11, 24 

Bretschneider, E., reference to work 21 

Cabral, expedition to Brazil and India 24 

China, climate of region where new type of corn was discovered 13 

maize, historical accounts 20-24, 25 

Chinese corn. See < lorn, Chinese. 

Climate, Chinese, adapted to growth of new type of Chinese corn 13 

Color of seed, effects of cross-pollination ■ 16-17, 24 

peculiarities, new type of Chinese corn 13-15 

Conclusions of bulletin 24-25 

Corn, Chinese, new type, aleurone layer, color 14, 16, 24 

blades, leaf, erect form 8, 10, 12, 24 

monostichous arrangement 8, 11, 24 

characters, distinctive 10-13 

climate of region where discovered 13 

details of growth 8-9, 24 

endosperm, color and texture 14-15, 17-18, 24 

hand-pollinated, hybrid characters 16-19, 24-25 

introduction into America 7 

kernels, description _ 13-16 

pollen, abundance 9 

retention by erect blades an aid to pollina- 
tion 12 

resistance to dry winds 12-13 

seed, description 8, 18 

size as affected by cross-pollination 18 

tassel, description 9 

Columbian, compared with Chinese 10 

grain of twenty-one varieties, analyses 15 

pollination, prevention by dry winds. . .' 12 

varieties, oil content 15-16 

protein content 15-16 

See also Maize. 

De Candolle, references to absence of maize in China, discussion 20, 21, 23 

Endosperm, Chinese corn, new type, color and texture 7, 14-15, 17-18, 24 

Farnham, Rev. J. M. W., introduction of Chinese corn into America.- 7, 25 

Grain, corn, Chinese, new type, description and composition 13-16 

varieties, analyses 15 

Hance, H. F., historical accounts of maize in China 20-22, 23 

Herrada, Martin de, historical note. , 22 

101 29 



30 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. 

Page. 

Hybrid characters in Chinese corn 16-19, 24-25 

Indian corn. See Corn and Maize. 

Introduction to bulletin 7 

Ke Chih King-yuan, Chinese cyclopedia, description of maize: Yu-me 23 

Laufer, Berthold, reference to work 23 

Lazenby , W. R. , note on abundance of pollen 12 

Leaf blades. See Blades. 

Li Shi-chen, Chinese botanist, references to maize 21 

Ma Fu-po, tradition regarding introduction of corn into China 21 

Maize in China, historical accounts 20-24, 25 

possibility of early introduction from America 24 

tribute to emperor of China 22, 23 

See also Corn. 

Marco Polo, no reference to maize or tea in China 23 

Marin, Geronimo, historical note 22 

Mayers, W. F., historical accounts of maize in China 20-22, 23 

Mei K'i-chao, references to maize in China 21 

Mendel's law applied to hybrids of Chinese corn 16 

Mendoza, Juan Gonzales de, references to maize in China 22 

Oil, content of corn varieties 15-16 

Pen ts'ao kang mu, Chinese herbal, references to maize 21 

Pollen, corn, Chinese, new type, abundance 9 

retention by erect blades aid to pollination. 12 

Pollination, corn, prevention by dry winds 12 

Protein, content of corn varieties 15-16 

Seed, corn, Chinese, new type, description 8, 18 

size as affected by cross-pollination 18 

Shanahan, J. D. , observation 14 

Shanghai, climate 13 

Si-fan, ancient name for territory west of China 21 

Silk, early development by ears in new type of Chinese corn 8, 11, 24 

Swingle, Walter T., acknowledgment of assistance rendered 20 

Tassel, Chinese corn, new type, description 9 

Tien I-heng, reference to work 23 

Voorhees red sweet corn, color of aleurone 14 

Wheat, imperial, Chinese. See Yu-me. 

Winds, dry, adaptation of new type of Chinese corn 12-13 

Wu Ki-siin, reference to work 21 

Xenia characters in crosses of new type of Chinese corn 16-19, 24-25 

Yii-me, Chinese name for maize, mention in Chinese cyclopedia 23 

Yu-shu-shu, Chinese name for maize , . . . , 21 

161 

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